The Egyptians mummified their dead to preserve the body for the spirit to inhabit in the afterlife. The inspiration for preserving bodies in this way may have come from observing bodies swiftly dehydrating in the dry sand of the Egyptian desert.

The Egyptians spent centuries refining and perfecting their version of mummification, experimenting with various ways of preserving the corpse and organs. In fact, the term “mummy” comes from a Persian term that relates to the black colour the body turned after treatment with bitumen, one of the preservatives used in the process.

The Embalming Process

Our knowledge of the embalming process comes from the Greek historian Herodotus and modern examinations of mummies. Bodies dating from the late new kingdom are particularly valuable as they provide the best examples of mummies.

The mummification process was a ritual that took seventy days to complete, with priests reciting rituals throughout. It began with placing the corpse on a slab slanted towards a basin to collect the fluids from the body.

An incision was then made in the left side of the corpse’s abdomen and then all the main internal organs were removed except for the heart and, on occasion, the kidneys. As the centre of emotion and intellect, the heart was required for judgement in the underworld. So it had to remain with the body. 

The brain was removed via the nose using a curved hook to pull it out after it was partially dissolved by liquid. However, this process could be potentially damaging to the corpse’s face. The nose of Ramesses II, for example, collapsed as his brain was removed. Xeroradiography, a non-invasive technique similar to an x-ray, revealed the embalmer had inserted an animal bone to help support the collapsed nasal bone.

Sometimes a hole was drilled in the skull to remove the brain, as a fibre-optic endoscopy demonstrated in the case of Ramesses V. In this case, the pharaoh’s brains were removed through a hole in the base of his skull.

The empty body cavities were then stuffed to bulk out the body. Usually, linen was used, but sand or mud were used instead. But whatever the stuffing, spices such as myrrh and cassia were always added to aid preservation.

With the organs removed, the corpse was ready to be dehydrated. This was achieved by applying solid natron, a compound of sodium bicarbonate. The corpse was then washed and perfumed before it was wrapped in linen bandages with amulets incorporated into the layers. With the body prepared for burial, all materials that had come into contact with the corpse were buried in a pit close to the tomb.

The Use of Canopic Jars

The custom of removing the organs from the body dates from the 4th Dynasty when it was discovered that leaving them in situ caused purification within the embalmed corpse. In some cases, the organs were removed, dehydrated and then returned to the body. However, it was more usual to store them in canopic jars.

Canopic jars were made of pottery or stone. They acquired their name from the god Canopus, a local form of Osiris from near Alexandria, who was worshipped as a fat-bellied vase. Early Egyptologists noticed the similarity between his form and that of the jars found in tombs. So the name stuck.

Each burial usually contained four canopic jars: one for the stomach, one for the intestines, one for the lungs and one for the liver. Until the 18th Dynasty, the stoppers of the jars were shaped like human heads. They were later replaced with the heads of four sons of Osiris whose duty it was to guard the organs: the jackal Duamutef, the falcon Kebhsenuef, the ape Hapy and Imsety, an anthropoid.

The jars were placed in a chest buried in the tomb with the corpse and grave goods. Here, it was guarded by four further Egyptian deities: the goddesses Neith, Selkis, Nephthys and Isis. 

Egyptian Mummies

This deliberate drying of the corpse and removal of the organs has ensured that Egyptian mummies are amongst the most well-preserved and well-known examples of deliberate mummies worldwide.

Resources

Illustrated Dictionary of Archaeology

Renfrew, Colin and Bahn, Paul (1994) Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice. London Thames and Hudson