Traditionally, a Roman woman’s place was in the home. Unable to vote or act without the authority of a male guardian, women were ideally viewed as domestic creatures, caring for the home and family.

In reality, however, women could break out of the domestic sphere. Many women worked in trades, but evidence from Pompeii shows that it was also possible for women — including freedwomen and women with a guardian — to take a leading role in business. For the archaeological record shows that women acted as managers and money lenders, rented out property and ran their own companies.

Traditional Status of Roman Women

According to Roman law, a woman could not act independently “on account of the lightness of the mind,” as the second-century jurist, Gaius, put it. So instead, guardians acted for them — usually their father, husband or an appointed individual. This meant that a woman could not undertake any transactions, such as the sale of property, without their guardian’s consent. 

In addition, the idealised female role in Roman society was a wife and mother, spinning, weaving and caring for the children. However, in practice, women often took these domestic skills outside the home to an employer. Women worked as weavers or as employees in other industries — at least while they were unmarried.

But as time progressed, legal restraints against women relaxed — culminating in the Emperor Claudius freeing women with four children from the requirement of a legal guardian, allowing them true independence. 

But even if a woman had not earned her independence in this way, evidence from Pompeii shows that many other women found ways to become actively involved in business.

Umbricia Fortunata: A Female Roman Manager

Even if they did not own their own business, female employees were trusted to run them for their employer. Umbricius Scarus was the major producer of fish sauce in Pompeii and he ran several workshops across the town that his freedmen managed. 

We know the names and roles of these individuals from inscriptions found on urcei, the vessels that contained garum. These inscriptions show that one of Scarus’s workshops was managed by a freedwoman, Umbricia Fortunata.

Women and Money Lending in Pompeii

Various pieces of evidence show that women were involved in money lending to other women.

Two wax tablets discovered in the furnace area of the Palestra Baths in Pompeii relate to a loan between two women: a freedwoman Poppaea Note and a Dicidia Margaris. Poppaea Note borrowed the money and transferred two of her slaves, Simplex and Petrinus, to her creditor as security:

The tablets are interesting as they show that all of this occurred “through the agency of her [Dicidia Margaris] guardian Decimus Caprasius Ampliatus.” But the wording of the tablet makes it clear that this was a matter of form only; the transaction had been arranged directly by the two women.

Dicidia Margaris was not alone in acting as a moneylender. Three records survive, recording loans from a Faustilla who lent money professionally. Borrowers left items such as earrings and a hooded cloak as security. Faustilla charged interest of around three per cent.

Julia Felix, the Female Property Magnate

The most famous female associated with business in Pompeii was Julia Felix. Her estate occupied a whole town block near the amphitheatre. A sign fixed outside the buildings indicated she was renting out a substantial number of domestic and commercial properties. These included an elite private bath suite, shops, taverns and apartments on a five-year lease.

Roman Women in Trade

During the early first century AD, the emperor Claudius began to offer incentives to ship owners to increase grain exports. These incentives specifically included women, demonstrating the importance of women in trade.

In Pompeii, there is evidence of a particularly successful trader, Naevoleia Tyche, whose tomb survives outside the Herculaneum gate. Tyche was a freedwoman, but the style of the tomb she built for herself and her husband demonstrates her wealth and standing. 

Portraits of the lady on the tomb celebrate her achievements. One relief shows a ship in full sail with a lady sitting at the stern. This has been taken for Tyche herself and suggests she was one of the women who took advantage of Claudius’s incentives and made a success of her business.

Resources

Cooley, A E and M G L (2004) Pompeii: A Sourcebook. Routledge: London and New York.

Dobbins, J J and Foss P W (2008).The World of Pompeii. Routledge: London and New York

Lefkowitz, M R and Fant, M B. (1995). Women’s Life in Greece and Rome: A Source Book in Translation. Duckworth: London