Herculaneum was smaller than its near neighbour, Pompeii — but its history is still significant. A small coastal town, a quarter of the size of its busy, commercial neighbour, Herculaneum was also ancient. The Oscans, Samnites and Greeks all left their mark on Herculaneum’s layout —even its name. But, it was as a Roman municipum that Herculaneum reached its peak when it became a popular seaside resort. In fact, Herculaneum became a popular summer retreat for the Roman elite — before, like Pompeii — the eruption of Vesuvius destroyed it in 79 AD.

Herculaneum’s Foundation

According to Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, Director of the Herculaneum Conservation Project, no archaeological remains of Herculaneum date beyond the fourth century BC. However, ancient sources suggest the tiny town had an ancient — even mythical foundation. Dionysius of Halicarnassus claims the Greek hero Herakles founded Herculaneum —coincidentally, a similar foundation myth to that of nearby Pompeii. 

However, it is likely Hercualneum predates the Greeks by some centuries. Its location, on a promontory overlooking the sea on the slopes of Vesuvius, made it the perfect spot for an easily defended settlement that could take advantage of the sea for fishing and the fertile soil of the land around it for agriculture.  No wonder the geographer Strabo referred to the area as “fruitfulness of the country”. It is unlikely that early settlers would have waited for a Greek hero to sanction the land as a settlement.

Strabo claimed the Oscans first settled Herculaneum. They were followed by the Etruscans who dominated much of Campania in the sixth century BC. It was they who made the most of Herculaneum’s coastal location, increasing passing trade through the town. It was only in the fifth century BC that Herculaneum became subject to Greek influences. By 474BC, Greek settlers firmly controlled Campania, marking the area as their own with the foundation of new towns. Very near to Herculaneum, they founded their “new town” later known as Naples. These Greek settlers made their mark on Herculaneum too. The small settlements grid-like street plan echoes that of its larger neighbour. 

 Samnite Herculaneum

By the fourth century, Herculaneum had fallen under Samnite influence and the town became part of the Nucerine League. Along with the rest of the League, Herculaneum became a Socii or an ally of  Rome in 307BC. 

The second century BC was something of a boom time for Samnite Herculaneum. The archaeology shows a developing architectural style as Herculaneum’s houses began to evolve from dark, compact Oscan houses with small windows and doorways, to more expansive collonaded houses with gardens and upper floors. Remnants of this era still survive in Herculaneum, such as the Samnite House and the House of the Wooden Partition.

In 91BC, the outbreak of The Social War shattered Herculaneum’s peace as Rome’s Italic allies rebelled against her. However, it was a futile gesture. Rome was victorious and in 89BC, Titus Didius, a legate of the dictator Sulla, led the conquest of Herculaneum. However, rather than marking an ignominious decline, conquest was the making of Herculaneum.

Roman Herculaneum

Herculaneum was now part of the Roman state, taking on the status of a municipum or provincial town. The town now entered the most prosperous phase of its history. The Romans provided Herculaneum with paved streets, sewers, a new theatre and basilica — all the trappings of a Roman town.

Why did Roman’s lavish so much attention — and money — on Herculaneum? After all,  the town was little more than a village when compared to the prosperous commercial city of Pompeii. According to Andrew Wallace Hadrill, Herculaneum was no more than 15-20 hectares making it just a quarter of the size of its near neighbour with only a few thousand inhabitants. The little town was no major port and apart from agriculture and viticulture had little commercial significance.  Yet after the earthquake of 62AD which ravaged the towns around Vesuvius, Herculaneum’s civic repairs were financed by subsidies from the Roman government.

A Roman Holiday Resort

Herculaneum’s significance to the Romans was one of pleasure rather than business. By the first century BC, the Bay of Naples became a holiday hot spot because of its volcanic springs at places like Baiae and Solfatara near Naples. Rich Romans bent on a health cure began to flock to the bay in the summer and the region’s coastline slowly became dominated by the villas of the wealthy and aristocratic. Herculaneum was small, exclusive and blessed with warm summer breezes and spectacular coastal views. According to Strabo, it was the perfect “healthful place to stay” and escape the unbearable summer heat of Rome. 

Herculaneum quickly became the retreat of the Roman elite. The consul, Appius Claudius Pulcher had a country retreat at Herculaneum and one of the town’s most famous residences, the Villa of the Papyri, has been identified as the former home of the politician, Epicurean philosopher — and father in law of Julius Caesar, L Calpurnius Piso.

 The Eruption of Vesuvius

One of these villas of the Roman elite is central to Pliny the Younger’s account of the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD which abruptly ended Herculaneum’s existence. On the morning of the eruption, the writer and Admiral of the Roman fleet, Pliny the Elder, received a message from Rectina, the wife of Tascius. The letter asked Piny to sail across the bay to rescue Rectina and her household from her house at the base of the mountain. (The Letters of Pliny the Younger, Bk VI.16).

The elder Pliny set out, but he never made it.  Unable to navigate the waters of the bay which quickly became chocked with pumice, he died at Stabiae where he had taken refuge.

 However, despite the urgency of Rectina’s message, Herculaneum itself was not much affected by the eruption initially, suffering only a light sprinkling of ash. This all changed at midnight when the first of six pyroclastic surges of hot gases and flows left the volcano and headed to Herculaneum.

The pyroclastic blast hit the city within four minutes. The velocity of the cloud of hot gases was so great, it lifted statues from their pedestals, leaving their shattered remains some distance away. It also toppled the portico of the palestra and lifted tiles off roofs. The surge was so hot it carbonised wood in the city and caused the sea to boil when it reached the waterfront. The intense heat also killed any remaining inhabitants instantaneously.

Eventually, Herculaneum became buried under 20 metres of ash that mixed with water to form mudslides. The mudslides hardened to form a tufa rock which encased and preserved Herculaneum. They also slide into the harbour, extending the coastline away from the town. 

No other settlement appeared on the site of Herculaneum until the tenth century when the medieval town of Resina was founded. Resina had none of its ancient predecessor’s elite prestige — and it had lost its’ sea view.  However,  underneath it, ancient Herculaneum lay, waiting to be rediscovered.

Sources

Capasso, Gaetano, (2005) Journey to Pompeii. Capware Cultural Technologies 

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, Book 1.44.1

Hadrill, Andrew Wallace, (2011) Herculaneum Past and Future. Frances Lincoln Limited: London

Hornblower, S and Spawforth, A (eds) (1999) The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Third Edition) Oxford University Press.

Pirozzi, Maria Emma Antonietta, Herculaneum: The Excavations, Local History and Surroundings. Pirozzi. Electra Naples.

Radice, B (trans) (1969) The Letters of Pliny the Younger. Penguin Books

Roberts, Paul (2013) Life and Death in Pompeii and Herculaneum, The British Museum

Strabo, Geography, Bk V, Ch 4.8