The Land of the Etruscans.

The Etruscans originally occupied the area of western central Italy between the Tiber and the River Arno, which covers modern Tuscany and Umbria.

The land of the Etruscans was resource-rich. It was a fertile land of rich volcanic soil as well as wooded hillsides and well-stocked lakes. It was also the source of travertine stone for building and deposits of copper and iron — all resources essential to developing a sophisticated Iron Age civilisation.

Who were the Etruscans?

The ancient writer Herodotus was the first to claim that the Etruscans were natives of Asia Minor who settled in Italy after a mass migration. This was believed to be true as their language contains many non-Indo-European elements, suggesting it had an eastern origin. 

However, ancient Etruscan also bears a resemblance to the form of Greek in use in the Hellenistic colonies of southern Italy. Thus, the modern interpretation is that the Etruscans were a native Italic people whose culture was influenced by their trade contacts. Evidence in the archaeological record supports this, demonstrating a gradual evolution of the Etruscan civilisation rather than any evidence of the sudden cultural change that would accompany the influx of a new group of people.

From Villanovan to Etruscan

It is believed that the predecessor of the Etruscan culture was the Iron Age Villanovan culture. The population of Etruria at this time was dispersed in small settlements, with the main centres of population concentrated at defensively sited hill towns such as Veii and Tarquinia.

Archaeology indicates a change in the culture of these settlements from the early eighth century BC. Graves began to change from cremations to inhumations and grave goods became richer, including items of eastern Mediterranean origins. By the end of the eighth century, what can be defined as an Etruscan culture had emerged.

In the century that followed, towns became more monumental with public buildings and elaborate houses. Chamber tombs began to appear with opulent grave goods. A defined class structure becomes clear in the burial record, with necropolii such as the one at Cerveteri showing evidence of an aristocracy.

The source of this cultural change was probably Greeks from the Aegean, southern Campania and the east. Etruria’s rich resources attracted these cultures and the resulting trade connections saw the Etruscans acquiring new metalworking skills and oriental styles. Together, these new forms of art and craft fused to create a distinct, Etruscan style of art, combining Archaic Greek and oriental fashions.

The Rise of the Etruscans

By the sixth century BC, Etruscan culture was at its peak. The Etruscans themselves became active in trade with Greece and Asia Minor, as is indicated by the rise of a middle class of craftsmen and traders. As a result, Etruscan interests began to spread throughout Italy. The Etruscans began to colonise outside of their homelands, reaching as far south as Campania, where they founded the city of Capua and trading beyond the Apennines. Etruscan was now the dominant Italic culture.

The Etruscans and Rome

According to legend, the Etruscans ruled Rome from 616 to 509BC when they founded the Tarquin dynasty. However, they left the eternal city with other cultural legacies. The principal gods of the Etruscans were Tinia, Uni and Menrva. The Romans adopted them in the form of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, the main deities of the Roman Capitoline Triad.

Etruscan Decline and the Rise of Rome

The Tarquins were expelled from Rome in 509BC, and Rome became a republic. The decline of Etruscan culture began soon after this, owing to the growth of Rome and a decline in Etruscan maritime trade due to the loss of Cumae in 474BC.

Etruria shrank back to its original territory. Rome, however, began to encroach upon it. The Etruscan city of Veii fell to the Romans in 396BC. By the first half of the third century BC, many Etruscan towns such as Caere, Tarquinia, Volterra and Perugia made alliances with Rome, paying tributes of wood and agricultural products. 

Finally, by 90BC, Rome had conquered its former rulers, when Etruria was absorbed by the Roman republic and the Etruscans formally became Roman citizens.

Resources

Illustrated Dictionary of Archaeology

Settis, S (2000). The Land of the Etruscans. SCALA: Italy

Potter, T W, (1992) Roman Italy. British Museum Press: London